Unpacking the determinants of digital inclusion among women: An empirical evidence from West Bengal, India

Abstract

Digital access and skills are central to inclusive development and to several Sustainable Development Goals, yet women in India continue to face barriers to digital participation, and evidence at the state level is limited. This study examines the extent and determinants of digital inclusion among women aged 15 to 45 in West Bengal, India, using unit level data from the Comprehensive Annual Modular Survey 2022 to 2023 (79th round of the National Sample Survey), covering 19,203 women. A composite digital inclusion score from 0 to 14 was built from 14 indicators covering high speed internet access, communication and banking use, office and technical skills, digital security, and information verification. Descriptive results show that basic use is far more common than advanced skills: 49.35 percent of women use the internet, 15.90 percent use email, 7.20 percent use digital banking, and 0.24 percent can write programming code, with rural women behind urban women on every indicator. Ordinary least squares estimates with district clustered standard errors show that access to 4G or faster mobile internet, individual and household education, and household expenditure are positively associated with digital inclusion, urban residence has a small positive association, and being married is negatively associated. Caste groups do not differ significantly once these factors are controlled for. These are cross sectional associations, and the index includes high speed internet access as one component. The findings point to infrastructure and education as priority areas for policy.